Ch 3 Why is Economics not an Evolutionary Science Essay Example

Ch 3: Why is Economics not an Evolutionary Science? Paper 3.5 Why is economics not an evolutionary science? The alternative of the mainstream economic vision of the economy based around equilibrium with one of continual evolution can be traced back to Marx’s Capital (1867[1938]) with his analogy of the economic system as a biological entity that is ever changing, in contrast to a chemical reaction, tending towards equilibrium. Although, Marx viewed technological change as something that capitalists reacted to, rather than drove, he has been credited with providing one of the first glimmers of the theory of competition through innovation which was developed later by Schumpeter (Kamien and Schwartz, 1982). Indeed, in delivering his graveside eulogy, Engles claimed, â€Å"Just as Darwin discovered the law of evolution in organic nature, so Marx discovered the law of evolution in human society† (quoted in Bowles, 2004:400). However, Marx was not the only late nineteenth century scholar with an interest in applying evolutionary ide as to the social sciences. Thorstein Veblen (1898) posed the question, â€Å"Why is economics not an evolutionary science?† Prescient for his time, the essence of his criticism was that economic theory centred too heavily on static equilibrium analysis and offered little insight into the mechanics of change. As one of the forefathers of institutional economics, he remarked, â€Å"All economic change is a change in the economic community – a change in the community’s methods of turning material things into account. The change is always in the last resort a change in the habits of thought† (quoted in Coyle, 2006:182). While aside from the notable exceptions of the Austrian economists Joseph Schumpeter (1911[1982], 1942[1975] and 1954[1994]) and Freidrich Hayek (1974) and a few others others, including John Kenneth Galbraith (1958), for much of the twentieth century evolutionary theory remained very much on the edge of economic thought. More recently, the earlier doubts which had been expressed regarding the ability of the standard model to adequately explain change in the economy exploded into a full-fledged crisis during the near collapse of the financial system in 2008-2009 which was underpinned by a regulatory system based on the theoretical foundations of equili brium and competitive markets (see conclusion). Schumpeter, for example, was adamant that not only did perfect competition not actually exist outside the world economic models, but that it was also undesirable from policy standpoint: Thus it is not sufficient to argue that because perfect competition is impossible under modern industrial conditions – or because it always has been impossible – the large scale establishment or unit of control must be accepted as a necessary evil inseparable from economic progress which it is prevented from sabotaging by the force inherent in its productive apparatus. We will write a custom essay sample on Ch 3: Why is Economics not an Evolutionary Science? specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Ch 3: Why is Economics not an Evolutionary Science? specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Ch 3: Why is Economics not an Evolutionary Science? specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer What we have got to accept is that it has come to be the most powerful engine of the progress and in particular of the long- run expansion of total output not only in spite of, but also to a considerable extent through, this strategy which looks so restrictive when viewed from the individual case and from the individual point of time. In this respect, perfect competition is not only impossible, but inferior, and has no title to being set up as a model of ideal efficiency. It is hence a mistake to base the theory of government regulation of industry on the principle that big business should be made to work as the respective industry would in perfect competition (Schumpeter, 1975[1942]:106). Here Schumpeter makes the point that institutions built on the notion of perfect competition have within them sown the seeds of â€Å"sabotaging the force inherent in its [the economy’s] productive apparatus†. He argues that a degree of monopolistic competition (large-scale unit of co ntrol) is a desirable market structure in order to enable the firm to accrue the funds to invest or recoup the cost of innovative research and development. Schumpeter’s argument is that this means that there is a logical incompatibility between entrepreneurial activity and perfect competition, as perfect competition implies the immediate elimination of excess profits through imitation. This underpins his idea that firms compete primarily through innovation, rather than through prices, because firms in most markets (which are beset with market imperfections in practice) realise the destructiveness of price competition on profits and tacitly tend to avoid it if at all possible. In this area, one of the most prominent recent notions about how the economic landscape evolves over time has been the theory of path dependence. This is the basic idea that decisions taken today or in the past influence future decisions, closing off some options and opening up others, an idea championed particularly by Paul David (1985, 1986, 1988, 1992, 1993a, 1993b, 1994) and Brian Arthur (1988, 1989,1994a, 1994b, 1994c, 1994d). Although introduced by the se authors as a way of characterising the evolution of technologies and technological standards, the idea has since been adopted and applied in a wide variety of other social science disciplines as a model of social, cultural, institutional, organisational, and political, as well as economic and technological evolution (Martin, 2010). Indeed, Martin goes so far to suggest that the spread of this concept, can be seen as part of a more general â€Å"evolutionary turn† across the social sciences reflecting a growing interest in how socio-economic systems change over time. This has involved a corresponding exploration of ideas, models, and metaphors drawn from modern evolutionary sciences, including evolutionary biology, complexity theory, and panarchy (e.g. Gunderson and Holling, 2002; Garnsey and McGlade, 2006;Wimmer and Kà ¶ssler, 2006). Notions including: variety, novelty, selection, fitness retention, mutation, adaption and population dynamics thinking have been taken from evolutionary biology; the notions of far from equilibrium adaptive systems, emergence, self organisation, fitness landscapes and hysteresis have been taken from complexity theory; and adaptive cycles and resilience from panarchy (e.g. global governance systems theorists). What these various strands of theory all have in common is that, in a non-trivial sense, history matters. Within economic geography, this evolutionary turn has had a significant influence (e.g. Boschman and Martin, 2007; Grabher, 2009; MacKinon et al., 2009) and the concept of path dependency identified as â€Å"one of the most exciting ideas in contemporary economic geography† (Walker, 2000:126). Ron Boschma and Koen Frenken (2006:280-81), major exponents in the emerging paradigm of evolutionary economic geography, see path dependency (along with generalised Darwinism and complexity theory) as a defining characteristic of their approach: †¦ that it explains a current state of affairs from its history†¦. Thus the current state of affairs cannot be derived from current conditions only, since the current state of affairs has emerged from and has been constrained by previous states of affairs. Evolutionary theory deals with path dependent processes, in which previous events affect the probability of future events to occur (Boschma and Frenken, 2006:280-81, emphasis in the original). Boshma and Martin (2007) echo the same question Veblen asked some 100 years earlier: â€Å"why is economic geography not an evolutionary science?† Here they argue for an economic geography which studies the processes and mechanisms by which the economy transforms itself from within. Three of the main criteria they list for research in this area include that firstly, there must be a focus on change rather than a static or comparative static analysis. Secondly, it must deal with irreversible processes, rather than ‘dynamic’ in the neoclassical sense where markets frictionlessly and instantaneously adjust up and down demand and supply curves. Thirdly, they argue that it should focus attention on the generation and impact of novelty as the ultimate source of self-transformation. It is the creative capacity of economic agents and the creative function of markets that drive economic evolution and adaptation. 3.6 What is path dependency? While the notion of path dependency has had a profound effect in the social sciences, it has benefited, or suffered (as you may), from a plurality of interpretations, so, as to not to misunderstand, misuse or abuse the notion, it is important to be clear what it is we mean by it. Two main views will be contrasted – a canonical view encompassing the work of David and Arthur based around the idea of ‘lock-in’ around a stable equilibrium, and an alternative view which emphasises the change and evolution of different pathways. As set out by Harris (2004) and Page (2006) a path dependent process can be described in the following way: (3.1) Where h(t)x = {x(t), x(t-1) †¦. x(0), y(t+1), y(t-1)†¦. } is the history of past outcomes of x from some initial time (t=0), when the activity in question first emerged, up to the present time t; and any other factors, say y, that also shape the development of x over time; and Fx(t) is the â€Å"outcome function† that maps the history h(t)x into the next outcome. This outcome function is key in distinguishing path dependency theory from neoclassical theory, as it describes the extent and manner to which the history of x influences x’s future trajectory, that is, its evolution. Although David’s model differs in certain respects from that of Arthur (Table 3.1), both share three fundamental commonalities which Martin used to characterisea â€Å"canonical model†. Firstly, the †accidental† origin of new paths: path dependence is viewed as a nonergodic stochastic process in which initial small â€Å"random† or â€Å"chance† events, or â€Å"historical accidents†, have significant long -run effects on the technological, industrial and institutional structure of the economy. This view contrasts with mainstream neoclassical theory in which the past has no influence on current outcomes and the economy converges to a unique equilibrium no matter where it started from. Table 3.1 Processes generating lock-in in the Canonical Path Dependence Model Secondly, the notion of lock-in: once a path is â€Å"selected†, path dependency is said to occur if that path or event becomes â€Å"locked-in† through the emergence and operation of various autocatalytic network effects (David’s phrase); or through â€Å"increasing returns effects† (Arthur’s phrase); and thirdly, the canonical model appeals to exogenous shocks to unlock paths. Once a industrial location or technology has achieved â€Å"lock-in† then it is assumed to persist and remain stable until it is dislodged by an exogenous â€Å"external shock† of some kind. 3.7 Equilibrium or evolution? Arthur’s version of this model, as he has applied it to the study of industrial location is set out in Figure 3.2 Here the outcome of multiple possible equilibria is determined by the â€Å"chance† location of the initial firms. Once agglomeration effect s set in due to increasing returns, the technology or industry locks-in on to one of a multiplicity of equilibrium states, or â€Å"basins of attraction† as David calls them (David, 2005:151). In their model, once this stable equilibrium state is attained, it takes a exogenous shock to dislodge it. From here, a new equilibrium state is ‘selected’ based on how the cards have fallen in the new economic landscape. This description of economic and technological change has also been described as a punctuated equilibrium model. It strength is that it allows the application of the neoclassical equilibrium concepts while it is in a ‘stable state’, its weakness is that it offers little insight into the process of change between stable states (if such states do indeed exist outside the model). Figure 3.2 The canonical path dependence model of spatial industrial evolution As Martin (2010) points out, there is thus a curious contradiction in the model, in that path dependence seems to matter only once a new industry has emerged, but plays no part in shaping that emergence or where it takes place. This is graphically expressed in Figure 3.3 as ‘lock-in to a stable equilibrium’. Also Martin observes that attributing â€Å"de-locking† of a pathway to some random, exogenous event, does not seem particularly enlightening. The trouble with this, is that once a stable state is achieved, it is as if history comes to an end, until an exogenous shock disturbs it onto a different path. Thus, while this literature claims to â€Å"be taking history seriously†, its weakness is that it adopts what Ulrich Witt (2003) has called the â€Å"virgin market assumption† – that the initial emergence of a technology or industrial zone takes place by chance with no reference to pre-existing technological, social, geographical or economic structures (i.e. it says nothing about the world at x(0) in the model in equation 3.1. The initial de-locking and locking-in of a particular path may arise because of the shifting preferences of markets or the entrance of new competitors and technologies, which are constant features of economic life. For example, many technologies and industries exhibit a ‘life cycle-type trajectory’ of gestation, growth, maturity and decline. It may happen that after initial agglomeration economies have been fully developed, diseconomies begin to set in – property prices and labour costs may rise in that area, the natural resource base may become stressed or exhausted; or the profitability of the sector may fall due to increased competition and firms may diversify into other areas of business – for example, Google moving into clean energy technology; or General Motors from combustion engines to electric motors. This life-cycle conception of the rise and fall of technologies in the path dependence literature, is also connected with Raymond Vernon’s product cycle (1966), which has also informed related product life cycle theories. Here the consumption of a product goes through a process of introduction, growth, maturity, saturation and decline; and similarly, for the local production of a product. This occurs as the firm sources its parts and labour at first from the nearby area in which the innovation was invented, but then shifts production away from this ‘home’ location as the product becomes more adopted in world markets. Ultimately, the original country of origin of the innovation may actually become an importer of the good, such as in the case of personal computers in the United States. Once off major events, such as the recent financial crisis and recession, or the collapse of communism, can produce sudden and obvious shocks that may lead to a reconfiguration of pathways. However, path disrupting change seems also to occur as an incessant process, in addition to occurring at â€Å"critical junctures† or in sudden â€Å"gales of creative destruction† (Schumpeter, 1942 [1975]:82-83): Capitalism, then, is by nature a form or method of economic change and not only never is, but never can be stationary. And this evolutionary character of the capitalist process is not merely due to the fact that economic life goes on in a social and natural environment which changes and by its change alters the data of economic action; this fact is important and these changes (wars, revolutions, and so on) often condition industrial change, but they are not its prime movers. Figure 3.3 Some stylized alternative evolutionary paths of an industry or technology Nor is this evolutionary character due to a quasi-autocratic increase in population and capital or to the vagaries of monetary systems of which exactly the same thing holds true. The fundamental impulse that sets and keeps the capitalist engine in motion comes from the new consumers’ goods, the new methods of production or transportation, the new markets, the new forms of industrial organisation that capitalist enterprise creates. The canonical model of path dependency has also been questioned more recently by Witt (2003:124): [S]ome doubts should be raised about the plausibility of both the theoretical underpinnings of, and the empirical evidence for, technological or industrial ‘lock in’†¦. sooner or later there will always be new rivals who threaten the market dominance of a technology or variant. The erosion of market dominance under competitive pressure by new technologies supports Schumpeter’s empirical generalisation that an incessant process of creative destruction characterises modern industrial capitalism. However, despite his critique of the canonical model, Witt also invokes the language of multiple equilibria in hi s own characterisation of lock-in, albeit with the qualification â€Å"that it is by historical standards a transitory state of affairs† (Witt, 2003:125). In contrast, Setterfield (1997:66) argues that multiple equilibria is inconsistent with â€Å"taking history seriously†: One characteristic property of an equilibrium time path is that once it has been reached, a system will display no endogenous tendency to deviate from it†¦ Once reached then, equilibrium implies a state of extreme stasis—an â€Å"end to history†, as it were, since in the absence of shocks any subsequent evolution of the system is pre-determined by the equilibrium time path that has been achieved. Along this time path the precise sequence of events of which economic activity over time is comprised does not matter, since it will have no effect on the subsequent outcomes of the system. It appears, then that the invocation of equilibrium as a solution concept—even qualified by the caveat that any equilibrium achieved is path dependent—entails an intolerable departure from the strictures of historical time, according to which sequ ential patterns of activity do, in principle, matter. However, as Martin points out – Stetterfield too, ends up suggesting that for heuristic reasons, we treat equilibrium as a â€Å"temporary† outcome of path dependent processes that may yet give rise to a subsequent endogenous process of ‘innovating out’ of equilibrium† (Setterfield, 1997:67-68). This raises the awkward question of what exactly â€Å"equilibrium† means in this context, as the more â€Å"short-run† and â€Å"transitory† an equilibrium becomes, the less powerful and relevant equilibrium seems to become as an analytical or metaphorical concept. Therefore, if the very concept of equilibrium is inconsistent with the theory and nature of an evolutionary (historical) system as Martin (2010) seems to suggest, then where does this leave the whole of neoclassical theory? If not some sort of (albeit transient) equilibrium, what is the evolutionary theorist’s governing metaphor for the economic system? While we have defined technology as being nested within the economic and social system, to properly answer these questions, we need to first more clearly explain what we mean by the â€Å"economic system† and by â€Å"change†. With the theory of path dependency we have seen how decisions in the past may influence our decisions today, but to take the next step to understand what moves the system from one pathway to another we need a framework which can draw out in greater detail the forces of change stylised in Figure 3.3, whether they be continual and incessant in nature; characterised by stability; once-off gales of creative destruction; or simply destruction, with no creation. We also need a theoretical concept which can better explain the reality of continual change in the economy which addresses the problems inherent in lock-in and punctuated equilibrium as well as agency and the scope of individuals, firms or citizens to shape the process of technological change. While several veins of research in the field of evolutionary innovation theory deal with these issues, including: technological innovations systems theory (Jacobsson and Bergek, 2004; Hekkert et al., 2007); and new path creation (Garud and Karnà ¸e, 2001); in the next section, focus is given to Strategic Niche Management (Schot and Geels, 2008) and the related Multi-Level Perspective on systems innovation (Geels, 2002). Next Page – Ch 3: The Mechanics of Change Previous Page – Ch 3: Evolution – Path Dependency and New Path Creation in a Complex Adaptive System

Word Choice Qualitative vs. Quantitative

Word Choice Qualitative vs. Quantitative Word Choice: Qualitative vs. Quantitative If you’re studying at college, you’ll hear the terms â€Å"qualitative† and â€Å"quantitative† used at some point. These describe two approaches to research, each of which is associated with different techniques and methods. Mixing up â€Å"qualitative† and â€Å"quantitative† can, therefore, detract from the clarity of your written work. As such, knowing how to use these words correctly is essential. Qualitative (Related to Quality) One sense of the term â€Å"quality† is â€Å"a distinctive characteristic of something.† As such, â€Å"qualitative† means â€Å"related to the quality of something.† In research, this means focusing on the subjective meaning or character of something. In the social sciences, for instance, researchers are often interested in peoples opinions or motivations. A paper in this field might therefore say: This research used a qualitative approach to assess intention to quit among teaching staff. Methods associated with qualitative research include interviews, direct observation, and case studies. Spying on your neighbors doesnt count as qualitative observation, by the way. Quantitative (Related to Quantity) At this point, you won’t be surprised to find out that â€Å"quantitative† means â€Å"related to quantity.† In academic research, this involves working with numerical data (i.e., things that can be counted or analyzed statistically). Quantitative approaches are often associated with the sciences, but they’re also used in everything from marketing research to anthropology (the key factor is using numbers): Population change was estimated using quantitative techniques. The methods used to gather quantitative data vary, though they range from using hi-tech measuring instruments to statistical analysis of survey data. Numbers! Numbers everywhere! Qualitative or Quantitative? â€Å"Qualitative† and â€Å"quantitative† look similar on paper, so it’s easy to mix them up. However, since they cover very different types of research, you must use the correct term when writing up a study, even if using a mixed-methods approach. The important thing is that qualitative research is concerned with subjective meanings (i.e., the quality of something), while quantitative research deals with numbers (i.e., the quantity of something). Remember: Qualitative = Related to subjective human understanding Quantitative = Related to numerical data and statistical analysis

Technology ,Rights, Value and Free society Essay

Technology ,Rights, Value and Free society - Essay Example This essay argues that individual rights and the common good can be reconciled; that it would be disastrous to adhere to only one principle. For instance, some claim that the authority bestowed upon individuals by private property rights is very dangerous to the common good; criminologists claim that protecting the criminals’ individual rights is endangering the common good by letting criminals walk; advocates who are focused on the overall moral environment of the society claim that protecting the rights of individuals to take unsafe drugs will certainly challenge public moral standards, whereas others, who are interested in the market’s ethical standing, generally conveys displeasure with the right to freedom of trade and commerce, declaring that these sorts of freedom set free the forces of insatiability, greed, and materialism to the detriment of unity, peace, and civility. Reconciling Individual Rights and the Common Good The restriction of individual rights seldom takes place without asserting or demanding some public value from it. And leading scholars, such as Mesthene, and governing political forces use this public value to justify their agenda of restricting individual rights. However, the key questions are, should it have to be this way? Should individual rights go against the common good? Without a doubt, those who support the natural rights of individuals refuse to believe so. It was exactly to prove the harmony between individual rights and the development of the community. John Locke would definitely disagree that there should be a battle between these two principles. Indeed, the disagreement arises from a fundamental misinterpretation. This includes believing that the community is far from being â€Å"a community of human individuals who share certain community concerns which will best be served if each individual has his or her rights fully protected† (Machan, 1998, 154). The argument is that human nature brings people toge ther into one community and establishes principles by which society could be completely unified, at least in theory. This is the very argument supported by natural rights scholars-- that the common good is most successfully protected by awarding each individual prerogative. Within such prerogative every individual is in all likelihood be able to achieve the best s/he can, bringing about the little or no damage in the process, for by denying individuals the power to meddle in other people’s business, the damage or immortality they do will almost certainly harm only them. This will absolutely work as dissuasion to misbehavior, which, consequently, generates benefits to the larger society. Even those scholars, who thought that preferably the most appropriate course of action for all individuals is to work for the society, also thought that the common good could be gained by means of private avarice, as long as specific ideals of liberty are respected. Even ancient philosophers, such as Aristotle, claimed that private property rights would benefit the common welfare. As stated by Aristotle (Machan, 2004, 73): That all persons call the same thing mine is the sense in which each does so may be a fine thing, but it is impracticable; or if the words are taken in the other sense, such a unity in no way conduces to harmony. And there is another objection to the proposal. For that

Promoting Reading Development Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Promoting Reading Development - Essay Example The strategy used is highly comprehensive. The other strategy is the use of the use of tests in vocabulary understanding. These tests can be either written or oral (Glasgow and Cheyne, 2010). The written ones can be used to test and improve the ability of the learner to capture English words at a personal level. They also help to improve the spelling ability of the learner. Oral tests can be conducted to help improve the pronunciation of the learner. These oral tests can be carried out in the classroom where each student is given an opportunity to stand in front of the class and spell out English words. For every wrong spelling the learner can be assisted by other learners in the classroom. The other strategy that can be used is the reading out loud of English texts in class. The teacher can come with various English books and distribute them among the students. The books can be of any topic ranging from history to geography and biology. The learners then take turns to read sections of the books out loud in the classroom (Glasgow and Cheyne, 2010). This tests their fluency in reading and helps them in the correct pronunciation of the English words. In addition, the learners also get to improve their vocabulary by learning new words. After the reading out in class, the learners are required to write a report on the book that was read in class (Spiro, 1980). The teacher assesses each report and identifies the level of understanding of each learner. After this, the teacher can then point out each learner’s weakness and give them an assignment of reading a particular book by themselves and submitting another report. The other strategy that can be used is educational video shows in class. These can range from pronunciation shows to just the normal shows. During each show, the learner is required to listen carefully to the conversations. At the end of each show, there can be a set of questions to be answered based

King of Shaves Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

King of Shaves - Assignment Example The paper outlines the challenges faced by the King of Shaves in the industry using Porter’s five force model and also assesses the generic strategies that the company applies in its operation. Table of Contents 1.0 Introduction 5 2.0 Findings 5 2.1 Porter’s Five Forces Model 5 2.1.1 Rivalry among Current Competitors 5 2.1.2 Threat of New Entrants 5 2.1.3 Bargaining Power of Buyers 5 2.1.4 Bargaining Power of Suppliers 6 2.1.5 Threat of Substitutes 6 2.2 Analysis of the Challenges Facing King of Shaves Using Porter’s Five Forces Model 6 2.2.1 Rivalry in the Market 6 2.2.2 Threat of New Entrants 6 2.2.3 Bargaining Power of Buyers 6 2.2.4 Bargaining Power of Suppliers 7 2.2.5 Threat of Substitutes 7 2.3 Opportunities and threats for King of Shaves 7 2.3.1 Opportunities 7 2.3.2 Threats 8 2.4 Strategy of King of Shaves 8 2.4.1 Cost Leadership 8 2.4.2 Differentiation Strategy 8 2.5 The Concept of Stakeholder Analysis 9 2.6 King of Shaves’ Stakeholder Framework 9 2.6.1 Stakeholder Framework 9 2.6.2 Mapping Stakeholder Power and Interest 9 3.0 Conclusion 10 1.0 Introduction The King of Shaves is a top UK manufacturer of shaving and skincare products that was founded in 1993 by Will King with a seed capital of ?15,000. King formed the company with his partner Hiten Dayal, under umbrella firm, Knowledge & Merchandising Inc. Since its establishment, the King of Shaves as grown as a brand and overtaken some of the most critical players in the industry. The company is now second to Gillette in the UK market and is picking in the U.S. market as well as other global markets such as China and India among others. However, the company faces strong opposition from its competitors in its growth focus. This report analyses The King of Shaves’ operation industry using Porter’s five force model and also proceed to identify opportunities, strategies of the company and closes stakeholder analysis. 2.0 Findings 2.1 Porter’s Five Forces M odel Michael Porter developed a framework that assists business managers in their strategic decision-making process. Porter’s Five Competitive Forces Model is crucial for exploring the structure of an industry in which an organisation operates. Consequently, managers use the model to establish competitive edge over their market rivals (Ahlstrom & Bruton 2010). Porter’s five forces that drive competition in an industry include: 2.1.1 Rivalry among Current Competitors The extent of rivalry among companies varies from one industry to another. These variations in industry competition levels are of particular interest to strategic analyst. An industry with low level of competition is perceived as disciplined. Ruthless competition may prove detrimental to firms within an industry. 2.1.2 Threat of New Entrants The likelihood of new players getting into the industry also affects the level of competition. An industry with high level of barriers discourages new market participan ts from invading the market and exhibit attractive profit levels for existing firms. On the other hand, an industry with low entry barriers or free entry encourages new entries and exhibits low profitability (Ahlstrom & Bruton 2010). 2.1.3 Bargaining Power of Buyers The bargaining power of buyers refers to the ability of buyers to influence an industry. In an industry where the buyer power is strong, the buyers have great control of pricing of products

Alfred Hitchcock The Birds Analysis

Alfred Hitchcock The Birds Analysis The Birds was one of the most successful suspense films of its time and possibly all time. It is a superbly directed film by the master of suspense Alfred Hitchcock in 1963. The Birds was based on a novella by Daphne Du Maurier of the same name. I think this is an astounding, unbelievably, remarkable film because it does everything a suspense film should have, and more. In this article I am going to explore the suspense used in the film directed by Alfred Hitchcock. I will examine how through lighting, colour and camera angles this was one of Hitchcocks most renowned motion picture. Hitchcock was very impressive in his dramatic techniques because the tension is built in various scenes which also makes this film accomplish the horror genre in addition to suspense. Initially the audience believe the film is a comedy because it is incredibly ordinary in addition to the use of bright lights and warm colours. Hitchcock makes us as the viewer get an understanding of the characters back story before unleashing the terror in the rest of the film. The movie was very modern for its era, as a result of the use of new technology to the 60s hence the scenes are realistic which adds to its unrevealing storyline. The use of Technicolor added to the horror during the film because it was very new. Through pathetic fallacy the atmosphere is set in most scenes, for example when Melanie Daniels and Mitch Brenner are in the bird shop it is very bright and colourful which is reflected in the characters behavior in the scene. Also towards the end the lighting and colour create a dark and eerie atmosphere. The killers in The Birds and Psycho were believable however the characters remained odd and innocent characters. The introduction of the film with the character is familiar shows her sense of security however when she moves to a rural area we see a vulnerable character with unfamiliar surroundings. Hitchcock may have chosen a small town because it is seen to be more dangerous but in this setting it is more dangerous as it is isolated. The film features a mass use of the colour green for example in the scenery whilst Melanie is driving the boat the landscape is green and blue to Hitchcocks liking and also Melanie wears the same green coat throughout the film. This makes the colour green significant to Hitchcocks films. Green is not usually associated with terror and fear but Hitchcock used this to make the audience feel uncertainty in the film. When Melanie is taking the birdcage to Mitch she is viewed from the waist down showing her in a green dress. This is a reference to birds being women because Melanie is blonde haired and is wearing green, the love birds are yellow headed with green bodies. This suggestion is also made in the beginning when Melanie is walking down a busy street and hears a wolf whistle towards her. This sound is similar to a birds sound. Hitchcock also used the colour green in Vertigo the Female lead wears green. Hitchcock also uses sharp objects in many ways for example the beaks in The Bird s and the weapon in Psycho. Most of the film is set during the day which makes the viewer unsuspecting of the birds. Hitchcock does this to show the calm and peaceful atmosphere which is maintained throughout the film until the ending. Vibrant colours take over the screen predominantly, during the relaxed scenes whereas before and for the duration of the bird attacks dim, shady colours are used. For instance in the Tides Restaurant when the birds attack the atmosphere is dark which is reflected on the clothes worn, the weather and the colour of the birds (see image 1). The colour plays a key part in why The Birds is a successful suspense film. Through its use of high key lighting contrasted with low key lighting which creates a mysterious impression to the audience. An example of lighting is offered proficiently in the dead famer scene. In this scene we see the lighting symbolising the mood in the scene. It begins with Lydia walking down with very bright sunlight, as she walks towards the door the lighting begins to dim down. Entering the house we see a window with natural light but no false light in the house. This absence of light begins to suggest something bad has happened. The director has used this superbly in many of his films to create unease with the observer. Hitchcock was superior when it came to using mise-en-scene to alter the appearance of things. The room where the famer is found is bright but as the camera begins to reveal his body the lighting is darker. The shadows cover the body only exposing his face with his pitch-black eye sockets. As Lydia runs out the weather has changed to a dark stormy sky. The audience feels that this symbolises the man has died and the birds will attack again. Hitchcock creates a parallel to the book because the main character finds his neighbours killed because of the birds. The director does this because he is trying to use visual techniques such as camera angles and lighting to create a horror film atmosphere which also creates a more effective suspense film. This scene is effective because of the drama portrayed by Lydia it is also good because we begin to see different aspects to Lydias character. During the scene where the old woman talks about the scientific facts concerning the birds we see bright colours and vivid lighting but as the birds begin to attack it seems to get darker. When the man is set alight the fire signifies death and evil, as well as a warning that more birds are coming to attack. This is another scene where lighting causes suspense. The use of Chiaroscuro is very effective in scaring the audience. Also the use of long dialogue to create suspense is extremely effective because the audience is eager to find out the cause of the attacks and when they will attack again but this explanation creates the anticipating effect on the audience. The MacGuffin changes throughout the film. At the beginning the audience feels the film is a cheerful film about love but when the storyline develops the viewer thinks: Why are the birds attacking? When are they going to attack next? These questions cannot be answered because they were even analysed by the characters in the Tides Restaurant scene after the birds attacked the school but there was no rational reason. Hitchcock used the MacGuffin in many of his films for example in Psycho the characters wonder Where Is Marion Crane with the money? MacGuffin is one of Hitchcocks strong points because he uses it to make the audience have a different attitude to every scene wondering what is going to happen and why is it happening. This works well because the audience does feel the urge to find out what will happen and a number of other questions. The performance portrayed by the actors in this film is very effective as the actors and actresses are very realistic and can relate to the audience through this. Also the use of something as ordinary and everyday as birds instead of monsters and aliens used in modern films makes the film relate to the audiences life. This is a film that can affect a wide range of audiences because it would have frightened people in the 60s because of the fear of bombs attacking. Nowadays it could be a relation to global warming attacking us. Due to the death of the farmer Lydia was in more need of Mitchs protection but felt she had to compete with Melanie because both were women in Mitchs life and they felt helpless. The very moving portrayal of a needy mother by Jessica Tandy is amazing and still makes an impact to people today because this emphasises Oedipus complex. Mitch is the central character and the women seem to revolve around him which could be another cause for the bird attacks. The protagonist in the novella by Du Maurier is a farmer and Mitch lives in a barn. This is one of many similarities between the film and the book. Hitchcock developed the characters relationships in different ways to create an unsuspecting atmosphere. Melanie is the centre of this as she is a problem to Lydia Brenner and Annie Hayworth (the school teacher) as they are both women who are dependent of Mitchs love. Kathy Brenner (Mitchs sister) likes Melanie because of the love birds she received from her for her birthday and is not one of the main focuses of the film. The handing of the love birds guides to a very misleading storyline making us think it is about the love birds only because Hitchcock spent a lot of time building the characters feelings and behaviours to create an intense atmosphere for the audience thus creating suspense. In the opening credits the title The Birds was slowly pecked away by the passing crows. This use of bright light and medium shots for an introduction creates a mysterious tone for the audience. For modern audiences this could be seen as a very emotive film but long however this makes the audience even more eager to watch the film because it does not give away much information in many scenes. The power of the movie is through the use of camera angles due to the absence of a music soundtrack. Hitchcock uses a variety of methods which are incredibly effective to produce the vast suspense in the film. In many scenes tension is built to create fear and uncertainty in when the birds attack. The film is not extremely graphical in the scenes where the birds attack yet the terror is shown through his use of camera angles. For example Melanies phone booth scene, the camera moves around in the point of view of the birds then switches to Melanies view however when she is getting more and more vulnerable low angle shots are used to make her look defenceless (see image 2). As Melanie enters the phone booth a medium long shot is used. Birds-eye view is used to show her alone with the birds attacking the booth. Extreme close ups show her emotion as scared. The attack from the birds is shown with fast paced point of view shots from Melanie and the birds. Extreme close ups are used to show the characters emotions during bird attacks. At the start of the film this is used showing the characters behaviour. Predominantly when we see Melanie she looks like an upper class woman with no worries in the world through extreme close ups. She is very sophisticated which makes her weak and in danger of attack. Hitchcock uses a female protagonists in many of his films such as Psycho, Marion is alone and vulnerable and Vertigo, the female is calm and alone. Through camera angles we can see the similarities in the characters feelings. Point of view shots are used a great number of times during the film to give you an idea about what they can see and how they see things. For instance when Lydia sees the farmer we walk with her because a point of view shot is used. The body of the farmer zooms in three times to show his eyes. This triple close up shot works well with point of view shot to create a tense atmosphere. Lydia is a frightened old woman who walks in a certain way through Camera angles we find out about her need to be a woman in authority. In the playground scene of The Birds the camera shots are used to develop the still surrounding before the assembly of the birds. The long shot of Melanie Daniels walking to the bench illustrates she is alone and the empty climbing frame in the playground. She is unaware of what is going on and has her back to the birds in the climbing frame (see image 3). By doing this suggests she is exposed and vulnerable and open to attack as she is unaware of the further gathering of the birds but the audience can see this through the medium long shot. She is lower down under the birds showing she is in danger of attack by the birds. Hitchcock is trying to explore the audiences reaction to this calm place being the home of the villains of the film because the playground seems like a place of purity so the audience believes it is a cheerful place. Usually in suspense films something begins calm but changes unsuspectingly. Hitchcock used suspense to its extent because the wait in many of his scene s for the birds to come are long. This change is when the first bird lands on the climbing frame creates a sinister atmosphere. The camera cuts from mid shots of Melanie smoking and the birds building up number on the climbing frame. Mise-en-scene is used because Hitchcock makes the landscape reflect onto Melanies loneliness. The school playground and the hills in the background make the atmosphere normal and make her appear defenceless and alone. Hitchcock is trying to explore how colours and bright scenery creates a cold scary atmosphere without the use of non-diagetic sounds or speech of Melanie. The argument that the bird attacks are drawn by Mitch could be proved wrong as it has three female characters: Kathy, Melanie, Annie. The sounds are very loud and show tension such as in psycho the only sound in the shower scene is the water touching the basin. Melanie is a very vulnerable character because she is an outsider to the community and Hitchcock emphasises this in many scenes. Annie seems to be dominant and have power over Melanie because she is accepted by the community. Also Annie feels threatened by Melanie because we see her ordering Melanie to sit outside instead of staying with her in the classroom. Tilted angle shots are used in the end scene when we hear the birds approaching. The characters look up towards the ceiling where the bird sounds are coming from. The squawks could be a diegetic or non diegetic sound because they set the mood and as the volume increases the characters are more frightened and the mood is intense. Afterwards a low angle shot is used to show the defencelessness of the characters. Wide shots (Extreme long shots) are used to show the landscape and the characters surroundings and usually it is not visibly detailed. This is incredibly thrilling and terrifying and is shown in many scenes to show the birds plotting and attacking. A birds eye view camera angle is a very strange and unnatural shot but is used frequently in the film, not only in the phone booth scene (see image 4). Hitchcock could have used this as a literal birds-eye view however the shot puts the audience in a god like position because we see it from above. This could be a direct link to the judgement day explanation of the film as this shot is used when the birds begin attacking at the gas station. The first attack is referenced in the Tides Restaurant scene when the woman accuses Melanie of the bird attacks because she is the first person to be attacked in the boat. Long shots are used to show the landscape. The warm, calm atmosphere in the scene is shown by the landscape and Melanies clothing. The long shot doubles as a point of view shot for Mitch. We see what Mitch sees as she is attacked by a seagull. The bird attack could be interpreted as Melanies need be noticed by Mitch because Melanie would have gone home straight afterwards if it wasnt for the bird attacking her. Hitchcock uses a range of dramatic techniques to introduce the characters and their relation with each other. He does this to create a sense of unease and make the film have a deeper meaning than just bird attacks. This film could be about a number of other things because this scene shows the emotions between the two characters which seems to cause the first bird attack. If Hitchcock really wanted to make th e film only about birds he would have based it more around the book because the novella has a conclusion and an explanation. Also it focuses more on the bird attacks and the science than the relationship between the characters. The mother and son relationship is shown in many of Hitchcocks film for example the dominant mother in Psycho. Throughout the film Mitch refers to his mother as darling and kisses her frequently. This is a suggestion of Oedipus Complex. Mitch is in love with his mother and the absence of his father makes the mother needy. In addition to that Lydia and Melanie look extremely alike which tells us that Mitch wants his wife to be his jus like his mother. One of the most successful scenes in the film is Kathys birthday scene. It has a sense of being a very unsuspecting scene because it uses very vivid colours and has an absence of birds altogether in the landscape. This use of bright lights and bright colours make the scene seem innocent which makes the audience anticipating a bird attack or wondering why they arent attacking. This gives an idea of innocence because we see Mitch and Melanies relationship develop before the bird attack and we see their characters revealed which also adds to a build up to the climax of the birds attacking. We see Lydia is helpless by the uses of camera angles such as point-of-view shots and extreme close ups. She is scared when the birds begin to attack and is needy of Mitchs attention but he is focused on the other two women in his life Melanie and Annie. When the birds pop the balloons we hear sounds like bombs which could be a link to the Daphne Du Maurier novella because her book was based in Englan d to show the fear of bomb attacks in post war Britain. Hitchcock was trying to explore what humans are afraid of which is nature attacking the human race. Hitchcock played on the idea of being afraid of the sky and used birds instead of bombs. This scene shows how the director makes a calm peaceful scene make us think about the world and nature. Modern movies have followed this example by the master of suspense such as 2012 which shows nature attacking humans and ending the world. Towards the end when the birds attack the house the feeling of being paranoid is conveyed through the actor which implies the feeling of things coming out of the sky. This is a reference to the cold war. This also makes us as humans feel that anything can happen to us and nature can make us vulnerable. The book comes to a conclusion that the birds are influenced by the tide levels. In the beginning the humans are in control of the birds as they are caged. The tables turn when the humans are locked in their homes with the birds intimidating them. The Birds is arguably a film about the tension between families because the birds attack when different things happen to each character. The bird attacks when Melanie starts to get feelings for Mitch and when there is tension between Lydia and Melanie. Lydia is the overprotective mother and Melanie is a woman without a mother. Melanie is wealthy and has everything she wants apart from a mother. At the end we see Melanie powerless she can barely look up to Lydia but still does in a way saying that she has found her mother figure and is need of help. Also another interpretation of the bird attacks is that because the birds will never stop until humans change. The birds almost fight back after the humans treat them with cruelty trapped in zoos and cages. The phone booth scene also emphasises that because Melanie is surrounding by birds mocking her in a phone booth which looks like a bird helpless in a cage. This tells us there could be a biblical message to the film, Judgement day as discussed in the Tides restaurant. In Psycho, there is a psychologist who concludes the film by explaining why Norman Bates chose those actions, similarly The Birds an ornithologist explains the facts about birds and possible answers to their behaviour in the Tides Restaurant. The birds could be a warning from something greater than humans due to the fact that birds are traditionally a symbol of peace but in the film they connote death and evil. Hitchcock reinforces the idea that humans are in constant fear that nature will turn against them. Humans a re usually the predators of birds but in the book they are shown as eating the humans because of the weather. However in the book they kill the humans but no mention of eating. The humans are left helpless to die. Hitchcock could have also based this on the bird attacks in San Francisco because the birds attacked without an explanation. Also Psycho, Normans hobby is stuffing dead birds which could be a reference to the cruelty of humans to birds. In the beginning the lack of any non-diegetic sounds in the film makes us believe there is no music score. However Hitchcock uses the sounds of the school children and birds during the film. The squawking of the birds is very intense. When it is calm the sounds are quiet and high pitched. Before and during attacks the bird sounds range in pitch and volume terrifying the viewer. Hitchcock refers to Bernard Herrmann, a composer as a music consultant. Herrmann has worked with Hitchcock on many films such as Vertigo. Hitchcock seemed to not use non-diegetic sounds to create a nervous atmosphere which is preserved throughout the film but the bird noises seems to be internal but is a non-diagetic sound with different pitched squawks. When we are introduced to Mitchs family home Melanie on the piano is another sound which creates and atmosphere. Whist Kathy is pleading for Melanie to stay. The piano sets the mood and slows down in pace as Kathy is turned down. In the Playground Scene the childrens nursery rhyme is the only sound which gives the same effect as a non-diegetic sound. This sound is well used to create tension in the atmosphere. The children sing repeatedly to make the scene feel innocent and to show Melanie is still naive to the birds gathering behind her. Although the sound is internal it still builds up tension and fear in the film. To conclude the film was incredibly triumphant in creating suspense for the audience. The whole film has a mixture of horror and suspense. This made me feel Hitchcock deserved to be called the master of suspense. Although others may feel this is not one of Hitchcocks best films because of bad visual effects I think it is worthy of being in the top five of Hitchcocks films. Through camera angles, colour and lighting and the drama portrayed by the actors and actresses the birds continues to be a success due to it being able to frighten audiences from different time periods. The absence of a musical soundtrack is very efficient in creating suspense. The film also produces an amazingly compelling storyline and for those reasons Hitchcock will never be forgotten for his amazing works.

Cloud Computing: Services Models and Deployment Models :: private, public, hybrid, Community

Introduction â€Å"At its most basic, cloud computing is moving applications accessible from our internal network onto an internet (cloud)-accessible space. We're essentially renting virtual machines in someone else's data center, with the capabilities for immediate scale-out, failover, and data synchronization. In the past, having an Internet-accessible application meant we were building a website with a hosted database. Cloud computing changes that paradigm—our application could be a website, or it could be a client installed on a local PC accessing a common data store from anywhere in the world. The data store could be internal to our network or itself hosted in the cloud.† (Duchene, 2010) â€Å"There are three ways in which cloud computing can be utilized for an application. In option 1, both data and application have been hosted in the cloud, the second option is to host our application in the cloud and our data locally, and the third option is to host our data in the cloud and our application locally.† (Duchene, 2010) Clouding computing is very popular services which people talk and look forward to use now a day with a lot of research are ongoing for the cloud is worthy to be invested in. Very popular service like Gmail, Google drive, Facebook, Dropbox, etc†¦ which people now a day used are obvious cloud technology. Moreover, most of the enterprise, SME and governments are looking forward to implement cloud base solutions to settle technology challenges, reducing costs, targeting new levels of efficiency and trying to create innovative business models. The objective of this research report is to provide a brief background on different theoretical facts of cloud and the practical usefulness of the design, installation and implementation of cloud computing. In order to see how cloud will become the most important part when business is set up without very high initial setup cost and only pay as you grow services. Services Models of Cloud Computing Software as a Service (SaaS) : consumer can choose a service only application that require for business. It can be accessible by different devices like a web browser, mobile or a program interface. Infrastructure such as network, operation systems, servers, storage, business applications and services like email or a CRM will be manages by SaaS provider. Only limited user-specific application configuration settings can be customized. The benefit of SaaS is no initial set up expenses such as servers or software licensing. One example of SaaS is Microsoft Office 365 which provides services like SharePoint Online, Lync Online, Exchange Online and Office Professional Plus.